Theophilus Protospatharius, a seventh-century physician who wrote the first manuscript focused
exclusively on urine called "De Urinis", determined heating urine would precipitate proteins,
documenting proteinuria as a disease state. French scholar named Gilles de Corbeil (12th century)
classified 20 different types of urine, recording differences in urine sediment and color and introduced the
"matula," a glass vessel in which a physician could assess color, consistency, and clarity.
Following includes the complete analysis of urine:
Visual exam
• Color.
• Clarity
Dipstick test
• Acidity (urine pH).
• Bilirubin.
• Blood (hemoglobin).
• Glucose.
• Ketones
• Leukocyte esterase.
• Nitrites.
• Protein
• Urine specific gravity test.
Microscopic exam
• Crystals.
• Epithelial cells.
• Bacteria, yeast and parasites (infections).
• Red blood cells (RBC).
• Urinary casts:
• White blood cells
Fractional excretion of Sodium (FE Na).
- [(U Na x P Cr) / (P Na x U Cr)] x 100
- U = Urine, P = Plasma, Cr = Creatinine, Na = Sodium.
- Re-absorption and filtration accounted (Both).
- Should not be used with normal renal function.
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
- FE Na < 1%
- Urine sodium < 20 mEq/L.
Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN)
- FE Na > 2%
- Urine sodium > 40 mEq/L.
